Unlike the biological features used in biological aging clocks, many modifiable psychological aging features are easily interpretable by individuals and scientific specialists. However, as discussed earlier, developing psychological aging clocks is also of great importance. Additionally, neuroimaging techniques like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and electroencephalogram (EEG) may be used in studies of potential biomarkers for healthy brain aging. Substantial progress has been made in recent years in the use of artificial intelligence for drug discovery and biomarker development. These clocks can be used to assess the value of human data, perform data quality control, and many other applications. These clocks may be applied very broadly to industries that are dependent on consumer health and longevity, including the pharmaceutical and consumer industries. These include blood biochemistry-based clocks, transcriptomic and proteomic aging clocks, epigenetic aging clocks, microbiome aging clocks, photographic aging clocks, and many others. Since 2016, multiple deep biomarkers of aging, identified using artificial intelligence, have been proposed. Numerous studies have demonstrated that molecular and phenotypic biomarkers may be used as effective tools for tracking healthy aging ( Table 1). We propose that this body of knowledge will lay the foundations for the development of next-generation biomarkers of psychological aging, dubbed psychological aging clocks, as well as deep multi-modal biopsychological and psychophysiological biomarkers of aging. We further provide a brief overview of the psychology of aging. In this paper we reflect upon the recent progress in the development of biomarkers of biological aging. There is a need for reliable tools for measuring and analyzing psychological aging, and methods for modulating longevity expectations and psychological aging states. While substantial progress has been made in identifying biomarkers of human biological aging, psychological aging is still poorly understood. This theory and associated studies have highlighted the importance of the psychology of aging as a field and laid the foundation for studies of psychological and psychophysiological aging markers. Conversely, when the perception of time is limited, a person may be motivated to preferentially make emotion-based decisions. An extended perception of time may lead to knowledge-based motivations and choices. Carstensen at Stanford University, maintains that “the perception of time plays a fundamental role in the selection and pursuit of social goals”. The socioemotional selectivity theory developed by Laura L. The perception of subjective age may have profound effects on behavior and well-being, and is connected to an individual’s lifespan. ![]() Increasing life expectancy has led to substantial variability in the perception of age, as individuals may perceive themselves and others as substantially younger or older than their chronological age. Humans have had to adjust to this increase both as a society and at an individual level. Since the dawn of the 20 th century, life expectancy in developed countries has been steadily increasing primarily due to the decreases in child mortality but also due to the many advances in biotechnology and medicine. ![]() Like many other species, humans have a shorter lifespan in the absence of medical interventions. ![]() We foresee the development of a broad range of parametric and deep psychological and biopsychological aging clocks, which may have implications for drug development and therapeutic interventions, and thus healthcare and other industries. ![]() Indeed, these two types of markers complement one another. We propose that biomarkers of psychological age, which are just as important as those for biological age, may likewise be used for these purposes. Furthermore, recent progress in artificial intelligence and biomarkers of biological aging have enabled scientists to discover and evaluate the efficacy of potential aging- and disease-modifying drugs and interventions. These factors can be used for a future development of individual psychological aging clocks, which may be utilized as a sensitive measure for health status and overall life satisfaction. In this work we propose a list of non-modifiable and modifiable factors that may possibly be influenced by subjective age and its changes across an individual’s lifespan. Multiple studies have demonstrated that a lower subjective age is associated with better mental and physical health, cognitive functions, well-being and satisfaction with life. Aging is a multifactorial process, which affects the human body on every level and results in both biological and psychological changes.
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